Classroom Interpreting

EIPA Written Test and Knowledge Standards

Linguistics

Linguistics is the systematic study of language. Language is a rule-governed system composed of symbols that is shared by a group of people. A rule-governed system includes spoken and signed language. Each of these languages has a function. However, the function of a language is different from the form. For example, one linguistic form (or sentence) can have several different functions depending on the context. Transition and relational words and phrases in both English and American Sign Language (ASL) contain important meaning and contribute to message coherence.

Communication and language, however, are not the same concept. For instance, sign languages use space to compare and contrast concepts and to show spatial relationships. On the other hand, the English language communicates spatial relationships by using words such as “on, under, between, beside and over.” A qualified educational interpreter must understand these differences and be able to make sense of them on a consistent basis.

Core Standards

Interpreters should be comfortable with the core standards used to develop the Linguistic portion of the EIPA Written Test. These standards include:

Language Function

  • Languages are productive meaning that users can produce an infinite number of new sentences.  Students can produce sentences they have never seen or heard.
  • A community of language users share a common set of rules.
  • Languages vary geographically.
  • Languages have three major dimensions: form, function, and use.
  • Language has structure at the sentence level and at the discourse level. There are rules for use at each structure. The structure of discourse is different for different types of text, such as conversations, storytelling, information-giving, and interviewing.
  • Words used in language typically have many different meanings. These meanings are best learned in context of discourse, not in memorized definitions. Words can change meaning depending on the context within the sentence and discourse.
  • Language and speech are different concepts.
  • Language and communication are different concepts.

Terms

  • Register refers to variations in language based on whom we are talking with and in what setting. Register can indicate different intentions of the speaker.
  • Syntax refers to rules that govern how we organize words into sentences.
  • English syntax uses the order of words to structure the sentence. In English, syntax highlights the relationships of words to each other and sometimes gives clues as to how the words should be understood in context. ASL has a fairly flexible word order but with grammatical rules about how words and phrases may be moved.
  • Pragmatics refers to a person’s ability to use a language for different functions. It refers to the rules that govern how we use language with other people
  • Form refers to the grammatical structure of a language.
  • ASL Morphology refers to the internal structure of the word while syntax refers to the relationships between words. ASL has more complex morphology than English. A verb in ASL is said to agree when the beginning and/or end points of the verb correspond with the subject and/or object of the sentence. Typically, pronouns in ASL are made by pointing to an object, location, or person in space.
  • English morphology shows concepts such as past vs. progressive with verbs, and plural with nouns. English morphology can also change the meaning or category of a word (nouns or verbs etc) by adding a prefix or suffix such as un-, or by adding an ending such as –ment. In English pronouns are words such as he, it, this, that are used to “take the place” of the noun they refer to.
  • Phonology refers to speech sounds or the individual parts of a sign.
  • Modality refers to whether a language is spoken, written, or signed.
  • Prosody refers to how a language stresses words and phrases, and uses intonation to communicate meaning and grammatical concepts. It also indicates sentence boundaries and discourse shifts. Prosody in signed languages involves facial expression, rhythm of signing, the size of signs, and body movement. Prosody in ASL and sign systems should be very similar. 
  • Classifiers refer to grammatical structures that provide information about: 1) how something looks; 2) how we hold and manipulate things; and 3) how people and things are positioned and moved through space.
  • Iconic signs are signs that look like what they are referring to.
  • Arbitrary signs are signs that are chosen or determined at random with no particular resemblance to the word they refer to. ASL contains signs that are both iconic and arbitrary but the largest number is arbitrary.  Iconic signs are not easier for students to learn. Iconic signs and arbitrary signs are not different in how they are used in sign language.
  • Metalinguistic knowledge of language means that you can discuss and think about language. Schools teach students metalinguistic awareness of English. Deaf and hard of hearing students rarely have the opportunity to gain metalinguistic knowledge of sign language.

Signed Languages

  • Signed languages are natural languages that have developed through use, not through design.
  • Sign languages use space to compare and contrast concepts.
  • Sign languages use space to show spatial relationships, which in English are communicated using words such as “on, under, between, beside, over”.
  • Signed languages use facial expression to represent grammatical information, such as questions.
  • Signed languages use facial expressions and sign rhythm to show the beginning and ends of linguistic units, such as sentences and topics.
  • ASL is a language because it is rule-governed, it can communicate abstract thoughts and emotions, it is used by a community, and students can learn it from a young age.
  • The Deaf community has a form of English signing, typically referred to as Pigdin Sign English or PSE, sometimes also called Contact Signing.

Fingerspelling

  • Fingerspelling is used to represent individual English letters and follows English spelling.  In words that are fingerspelled frequently, or fingerspelled loan signs, articulation of each letter may be altered.
  • Some fingerspelled words begin to look like signs when they are used very often.
  • Fingerspelling is an important aspect of ASL. There are grammatical rules that guide fingerspelling including which words are typically fingerspelled. Deaf students can learn fingerspelled words around 2 years of age although they are not aware of its relationship to English spelling.